Quotes

"Ability is what you're capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude determines how well you do it."   -Raymond Chandler


"A champion needs a motivation above and beyond winning."    -Pat Riley


"Motivation will almost always beat mere talent."   -Norman Ralph Augustine

"Destiny is not a matter of chance, it is a matter of choice. It is not a thing to be waited for, it is a thing to be achieved."    -William Jennings Bryan

"In my experience, there is only one motivation, and that is desire. No reasons or principles contain it or stand against it."  -Jane Smiley

Definitions

According to Ormrod (2008), motivation is "an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us in particular directions, and keeps us engaged in certain activities" (p. 452). 

"Motivation is typically defined as the forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behavior" (Biehler & Snowman, 1997, p. 399).

Ormrod (2008) defines two types of motivation, "extrinsic motivation exists when the source of motivation lies outside of the individual and the task being performed," and "intrinsic motivation exists when the source of motivation lies within the individual and task:  The individual finds the task enjoyable or worthwhile in and of itself" (p. 454).  

Ryan and Deci (2000) report, "when intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards" (p. 56).  Motivation in humans is not only of intrinsic quality; however, intrinsic motivation is an important theme in the lives of humans from their infancy (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 56).

The National Seminars Group of the Rockhurst University Continuing Education Center lists these as the top ten traits of motivated people.

Importance

Ormrod (2008, p. 453) cites the following as "general effects of motivation:"

• An increase in one's vigor and activity
• Increased incidence of setting and striving toward attaining goals
• Personal initiation and persistence of tasks
• Enhancement of attention, meaningful learning, and active thinking which all lead to a more successful learning experience              

These points combine to produce the result of why motivation is important:  motivation spurs a person to set a goal, initiate movement in the direction of the goal, and persist regardless of failures and setbacks.

Usage and Application

Biehler and Snowman (1997) offer guidelines for educators to follow to promote motivation for learning within their students.  These suggestions include:

• Ensure that students are aware of what is expected of them, how they are to go about working toward the goal, and how they will know that they have reached the goal.
• Do everything possible to alleviate needs - adjust the curriculum based on students' psychological needs, make the classroom safe and stable, convey to students that they belong in the classroom, and use learning experiences in which all students can gleam some degree of self-esteem.
• Use objectives that are attainable yet stimulating
• Emphasize positive feedback regarding student assignments
• Extrinsic motivation factors such as rewards for achievement may need to be utilized with students who are not motivated on their own                                                                           (Biehler & Snowman, 1997, p. 422).

Kathleen McKinney of Illinois State University describes ways in which teachers can promote intrinsic motivation for learning within their students rather than encouraging only extrinsic motivators such as earning an "A" for the class.  To read more about her ideas click here.

The Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt University suggests that motivation effects the learning styles of students:

• "Deep learners" are those students that teachers want to have in their classes.  These individuals are motivated by intrinsic factors, and possess a yearning to learn and undertake new material, even if the information is challenging.
• "Strategic learners" (or "bulimic learners") are motivated by intrinsic, as well as extrinsic, rewards.  They enjoy competition with others, but they rarely undertake learning things on a deeper level, unless there is a benefit for it.  These students often study material needed to do well on a test, but simply forget all of it once the test is over.
• "Surface learners'" motivation comes from the fear of failure.  They complete the minimum requirements to gain credit for a course, yet refuse to learn on a deeper level because they are afraid of failure.   

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Motivation

An individual's intrinsic motivation has many effects on how he or she learns.  Students who are motivated primarily by intrinsic factors are more likely to:  take the initiative to begin a project, focus more attention on their work, show more creativity in their work, persist even when things do not go as planned, find pleasure and satisfaction from what they are doing, evaluate their efforts using their own system of measurement, and reach high levels of achievement (Ormrod, 2008, p. 454).  Learners (or athletes or employees) who are intrinsically motivated will set, put in their best effort towards, and accomplish tasks and goals with little influence or incentive from outside sources.   

Ormrod (2008) states, "intrinsic motivation is the optimal state of affairs in the classroom" (p. 455).  However, students may possess both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for a task.  And, sometimes one motive may appeal to both sides (Ormrod, 2008, p. 455).

Click here to read more on the difference of extrinsic vs. intrinsic factors and their influence related to athletes  (Hatch, Thomsen, Waldron, n.d.).

Disadvantages of Motivation


Vanderbilt University's Center for Teaching (click here) offers disadvantages to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators that educators may encounter in the classroom.  According to Vanderbilt University, the following intrinsic motivating factors may be perceived as disadvantageous:

• An educator's efforts at increasing intrinsic motivation in pupils may require a great deal of time and planning.  And, the results of such efforts may not be witnessed in students for a long period of time, if ever.
• Since students are unique individuals, no one approach to fostering intrinsic qualities will work every time.

The same website lists disadvantages of extrinsic motivators.  They are:

• Extrinsic motivators sometimes serve as a distraction from the material being studied.
• It is difficult for educators to establish appropriate extrinsic awards (or punishments) for students' behaviors.
• Often these types of motivators are not effective long-term.  Once the reward or punishment is dropped, so is the motivation level of the pupils.
• Evidence suggests that extrinsic motivators may negatively impact the internal motivation of students.  

Theories and Theorists

Maslow's Hiearchy of Needs and Humanism
In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed A Theory of Human Motivation.  Maslow's theory is a key component of humanism, a psychological ideal popular in the 1960s and 1970s.  Humanism focuses on the way humans gain emotions, beliefs, and values, as well as how they interact with one another (Ormrod, 2008, p. 458).  Ormrod's text explains how Maslow's hierarchy of needs attempts to explain the phenomena that motivates humans using the following five categories:
1. Physiological needs - food, water, rest, physical activity, air, etc. 
2. Safety needs - security within the environment; stability
3. The need for love and belonging - "fitting in" and "being a part" of a group or a society
4. Esteem needs - people strive for both self-esteem as well as the need for esteem, or positive feelings, from other people; if esteem needs are not met, an individual may feel as though they are less, or inferior, when compared to others
5. Need for self-actualization - "to develop and become all they are capable of becoming"
                                                                                                                                                    (Ormrod, 2008, p. 458- 459)

The Drive Theory
This theory suggests that all organisms are motivated by a drive to maintain a physiological state of balance.  The drive is a need within an organism that is vital to the organism's "optimal functioning" (Ormrod, 2008, p. 455) level.  When there is a drive present, the organism acts to reduce the need and regain homeostasis.  The following researchers contributed to the theory of drive:  Sigmund Freud, Clark Hull, and Robert Woodworth. (Ormrod, 2008, p. 455-457).

Motivation in relation to the Theory of Arousal
Arousal refers to the "level of internal energy an organism is currently experiencing" (Ormrod, 2008, p. 457).  When the level of arousal is low, an individual is in a relaxed state such as sleep.  High levels of arousal are related to increased energy levels and, in extreme circumstances, even anxiety.  Heron's study in 1957 concluded that humans have a need for stimulation and seek to maintain an optimal state of arousal.  "Too little stimulation is unpleasant, but so is too much," according to Ormrod (2008, pp. 457-458).

References

Biehler, R. and Snowman, J.  (1997).  Psychology applied to teaching.  (8th ed.)  Boston:  Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Hatch S., Thomsen D., and Waldron, J.  Extrinsic rewards and motivation.  Association for Applied Sport Technology.  Retrieved from http://appliedsportpsych.org/resourcecenter/coaches/articles/extrinsicrewards

Mckinney, K.  Encouraging students' intrinsic motivation.  Illinois State Center for Teaching, Learning, and Technology.  Retrieved from http://www.teachtech.ilstu.edu/additional/tips/intMotiv.php

Ormrod, J.  (2008).  Human learning.  (5th edition).  Upper Saddle River, NJ:  Pearson Prentice Hall

Rockhurst University Continuing Education Center.  10 traits of self-motivated people.  Retrieved from http://www.nationalseminarstraining.com/Articles/Category/Career_Success/SLFMOTIVAT/index.html


Ryan, R. and Deci, E.  (2000).  Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations:  classic definitions and
new directions.  Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 54–67. Retrieved from http://www.unco.edu/cebs/psychology/kevinpugh/motivation_project/resources/ryan_deci00.pdf

Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching:  Motivating Students.  Retrieved from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/teaching-guides/interactions/motivating-students/#styles